Reports of lectures
04 May 2010 – John Moreland - Landscape and belief in medieval England
Dr. John Moreland, who lectures at Sheffield University, gave us a talk on ‘Angels, Elves & Demons in Medieval England’. Among many others, one of Dr. Moreland‘s special areas of interest is how societies in Britain and the Mediterranean made the transition from late Antiquity through the Dark and Middle Ages. Until recent times, when archaeologists were looking for answers to how people lived their daily lives, they usually disregarded any questions of what might have been their spiritual belief. This subject was considered to be best left to historians.
However, Dr. Moreland argues that the Dark Ages must not be so dark anymore and demonstrated to us in a most interesting and lively talk how he could reconstruct the belief of the people who lived in the Derbyshire Peak District of England between the 6th and 12th centuries by using the excavated material evidence in combination with texts from various sources such as Pliny the Elder, the Christian church, and more recent works of historians like, for example, the late Valerie Flint.
Dr. Moreland began by showing us a bronze-age burial mound at Wigber Low in the verdant countryside near the Derbyshire village of Bradbourne and then took us to Bradbourne’s beautiful, early medieval church and its adjacent churchyard, dominated by a carved shaft of what once had been a tall stone cross, placed there in the 8th century, not long after the Angle Saxons were converted from Germanic paganism to Christianity. In the 1980s excavations of the prehistoric burial mound at Wigber Low had brought to light later, additional burials of a man and a woman who had lived in the 7th century A.D, after Christianity had been brought to the area by Augustin. The man and the woman had been buried with some extraordinary items. There was a sword, a sign of Saxon nobility, placed between the couple; the woman was wearing a pendant made of a beaver tooth; next to her was a crystal ball, the size of a handball. In another burial a young woman had been laid to rest with a crystal ball, animal teeth and a pouch of beads of amethysts and amber and other semiprecious stones. In other graves of the same era were found pectoral crosses. Crystal and semi precious stones were rare and had to be obtained from somewhere else. What was the meaning of the crystal balls, the animal teeth and the stone beads? Dr. Moreland told us that, according to the works of historians like Valerie Flint and others, crystal balls in pagan times were associated with light and fire and together with beads of precious stones were thought of having the power to protect from the evil eye and to cure the many sicknesses afflicting man and beast. It was a belief that endured until the 17th century. Church records mention that people were chided for believing in the powers of these stones and therefore forbade their use for mystical purposes, hence they were called from then on ‘forbidden stones’. Equally, since remote times, amulets of animal teeth were considered transmitting the powers of the animal to its wearer. In the case of the beaver, Dr. Moreland told us how, according to Pliny, the beavers’ testicles were sought after for medicinal purposes. The story goes that when the animal sees that he cannot escape its hunters, it will castrate itself and throw them its testicles, thus escaping death. Its Latin name castor being a derivation from the Latin verb castrare – to cut off.
Clearly, based on the grave goods in combination with ancient and new texts, a strong case can be made that the women were practitioners of magic as well as persons of status, to whom the Christianized population still turned whenever they felt the need for protection against or cure of the many mishaps afflicting them. Also, the Christian cross was used in a pagan way. Since ancient times the farmers had always performed processions and supplications to their gods for good harvests and protection from evil. From the chiding church records we know that after their conversion to Christianity the villagers would still perform rogation prayers, but now holding up the cross and, by repeating the word cross over and over again in their chanting, would drive the perceived demons in front of them and out of the village and away from their fields.
Of the once magnificently decorated and colored carved stone cross, now only the shaft stands tall in Bradbourne’s church yard. We were told that during the reformation the top of the cross had been smashed into pieces which were later discovered in profane structures nearby, where they had been incorporated in an attempt to desecrate them. On the face of the shaft is a depiction of the crucifixion. Both sides are covered in scrolls of vines with a man shown shooting upwards with a bow and arrow. Each of the three top parts of the cross depicts an angel. Though the pagans would have been familiar with angels, the illustrations on the sides would have had different meanings for different people. For the literate cleric the hunters and vines would have been a symbolic narration of the gospels, while for the illiterate village people it would have simply depicted a scene from everyday life.
Last, Dr. Moreland talked about so called ‘thunderstones’, objects which had been excavated from a monastic grange not far from Bradbourne village. Previously they were thought to be prehistoric stone tools that the monks had found and collected. However, early Christian prohibitions reveal that the people in the Dark Ages believed that those stones had struck earth during thunderstorms and assumed they had supernatural powers. Ever in fear of lightning to strike their homesteads, animals and produce, they kept the ‘thunderstones’ for protection not only against natural disaster, but also against elf arrows. It was believed that cattle that fell ill had clearly been struck by an elf arrow and was now elf shot, in which case the thunderstone was expected to do its magic.
Indeed, Dr. Moreland has shown us that by consulting historical texts, the archaeologist can illuminate the Dark Ages and shine a light on people’s belief.
06 April 2010 – Prof Peter Drewett - Digging up Neolithic Hong Kong
The Neolithicum is established in China from 6000 until 1500 BC. In South China evidence of that time mainly is to be dated back only to the Late Neolithicum, (2500 -1500 BC). Neolithic settlements in the south are most likely to be found in the costal area, especially on headlands, protuding into the sea.
About 10 years before the return of Hong Kong to China huge amounts of government money was going to be put in infrastructural development, which would consume a lot of natural landscape. The biggest project of all was the new offshore airport, affecting the nearby headland of Sha Lo Wan. Prof. Drewett was called in 1993 as supervisor to do an archeological survey on this headland together with a team of Chinese archaeologists and local helpers. 
Result of the 
survey was, that indeed Late Neolithic structures dating from about 2900 to 2200 BC were found at that very spot.
In his lecture Prof. Drewett pointed out how difficult it was, to work on that weathered granite ground and to decide, what were post holes and what were natural holes. Eventually post holes could be identified by their content of packing stones, that would have fixed the original wooden pole inside the wider hole. The pattern of the holes gave evidence of an fenced in area , probably to keep domestic animals. Another two L-shaped patterns coul not so easily be explained. One theory is, that there may have been installed look-out platforms, to watch for approaching fish swarms. This woud fit to the supposition, that the people dwelling there (from time to time, because there was no 
evidence of houses), were fishermen. Further excavation revealed a couple of graves. These graves – with exception of one could only be identified as such by the content of funeral gifts. The bones had decayed due to the acidous milieu. Just in one single grave bones did remain, 
as a heap of seafood waste on top had neutralized the acid.
The gifts consisted of handmade pottery, stone axblades and quartz arm rings. Complete pots of global shape with a short cylindrical neck were unearthed. Their surface had been elaborately decorated with marks of carved wooden stamps or cord impressions. The polished axblades looked very much alike those found at European sites. The provenience of the material was far from the excavation site. But the quartz was local and most amazingly the rings were manufactured at the site by grinding them with quite sophisticated stone tools. Those tools were found too, along with accidently broken unfinished rings. These rings, if not used locally, may have been a valuable trading good in order to gain axblades or other necessary things.
Immediately after the archaeologists had left the site, the complete headland was blown up to give space for the airport.
02 March 2010– Jonathan Wilson - The Siege and Conquest of Silves 1189
‘The Siege and Conquest of Silves 1189’ was the title of the March lecture given by Jonathan Wilson. This very interesting and informative talk was based on his recent translation into English of the ‘Codex of Aix’. A fascinating 
document, in Medieval Latin, which was discovered by an Italian academic in Aix-en-Provence in 1837. Its author was in fact an anonymous crusader, who in 1189 joined the third crusade, and decided to ‘set forth frankly the naval journey of sundry events that befell the pilgrims proceeding to Jerusalem’. Jonathan Wilson explained that this third crusade came about within the historical context of the ongoing ‘Reconquista’ (the scheme to regain for Christendom all lands taken by the Muslim armies since the 8th century) and, more specifically, as a result of the decisive defeat in July 1187 of the Frankish army at the battle of Hattin in Palestine. Saladin, the victor, triumphantly marched into Jerusalem, whereupon Pope Gregory VIII issued a Papal Bull and the Emperor Frederick of Germany, King Philip Augustus of France and King Richard I of England rallied to the cause.
In addition to the main forces, there were also groups of warriors from Northern Europe who organised their own expeditions. This crusader makes no mention of a specific leader, so he may well have been part of such a group. At a time when the average journey was seven miles (which was the distance a man could ride and be able to return before dark) such an expedition was a huge undertaking.
The crusader wrote factual notes almost daily, and consequently his diary provides a wealth of information on a range of topics. He travelled by ‘round ship’, which had a single mast and a large square sail. This type of ship was apparently popular with the Northern crusaders as it had a large stowage capacity for supplies, animals etc., and could carry between 80-100 people. However ‘round ships’ were difficult to manoeuvre, had to stay in sight of land and depended on favourable winds. They also only sailed from May to September when the weather was relatively stable. In the diary he records all the places he visits and passes-by on the journey from Germany to Marseilles i.e. various ports in England and the west coast of France, then the west coast of Iberia to visit the shrines at San Salvador (Oveido) and Santiago de Compostella (one of the three main centres of Christian pilgrimage at that time). He includes many places on the North African coast, and also refers to places inland such as Marrakech. His information appears to have been obtained at first hand, probably from sailors and pilots or the local people he met in the ports. 
It was while in Lisbon that the crusaders agreed to support King Don Sancho I in his conquest of the Muslim held Silves (Xelb). This to be in return for all the plunder from the city. Their fleet of 37 ships together with a number of Portuguese ships proceeded south, rounded Cape St Vincent and passed Alvor, the site of a massacre a few weeks earlier by a previous fleet of crusaders. He then recounts how they arrived in Silves on 21st June 1189 and began a six-week siege and battle for the city which ended in its eventual conquest.
And what of the man himself? Jonathan Wilson explained that, although we do not know his identity, there is other information that can be gleaned from the text. He was certainly German ‘we of theTeutonic kingdom’, and possibly came from Bremen or the area nearby. He compares Silves to Goslar, and makes special note of the death of two crusaders from Bremen. He was not a sailor as he frequently reports on the weather and marvels at the sight of such things as dolphins. He was obviously literate with a good knowledge of basic Latin, but there is no evidence to suggest that he was a cleric as he makes no reference to any religious duties. Neither is there any evidence of scholarship as his writing is factual and unembellished. Laymen at this time were also literate. Many worked as professional scribes copying textbooks for the burgeoning universities or keeping records and providing various documents for the government or commercial establishments. He also appears to be familiar with the mechanics of war – both the machines, and the tactics e.g. the use of digging (mining) at the base of the walls in Silves in order to weaken the structure.
The diary ends at Marseilles. We do not know what happened after that. Perhaps he left a copy of the document there before continuing on to the Holy Land, to make sure that at least this part of the account survived. It was known that knights from Bremen took part in the siege of the port city of Acre where they set up a hospital and became known as the order of Teutonic knights. Maybe our crusader was one of these.
Jonathan Wilson’s book is published by Mesquita Press IBSN 978-989-96352-0-3
02 Feb 2010 – Michael Harris - ' Invasions of Armies and Ideas into India'
This
lecture gave an introduction to the complicated religious history
of India, covering the periods from the 5th Century BCE through to the
16th Century AD. The armies that brought bloodshed to the sub-continent
during this period also brought diverse religious and philosophical
ideas. These new systems of thought from the outside world blended with
the ways and perspectives for seeing the world that had existed in
India for millennia. Some existing faiths died out in India, other new
ones were rejected and others became uniquely Indian.
In his talk he wanted to introduce us to the origins of Indian belief and thought. He had deliberately excluded some religions e.g. Sikhism and Christianity and would concentrate on Hinduism, Buddhism and to some extent Islam. He pointed out that in Western Europe many new ideas and beliefs came from the East but for the Indian sub-continent 
the entry point was often the north- west – in modern terms Iran and Afghanistan. Alexander the Great invaded India as part of his conquests and stayed there for 18 months. When he left a large part of his army remained and subsequently converted to Buddhism – the picture on the left shows a statue of Buddha dressed in Greek robes. 
In the 16th century the great Moghul Emperor Akbar ruled probably the richest empire in the world at that date and, although a Muslim, he respected Hindu culture and beliefs. He consulted the Sufi holy man Sheik Salim Chisti about the possible conquest of Rajasthan and when this was successful he built a new city to honour the holy man. In the hall of this new city (picture right) Akbar liked to debate theology with representatives from all faiths – Hindu, Islam, Jain and Christianity – and he established a state religion combining them all. Unfortunately this attempt at religious unity did not outlast the Emperor and the subsequent reaction to purify Islam produced a missionary school of reformers for which the modern word in Afghanistan is Taleban. Buddhism arose against the background of Hinduism in north India in the 6th cent.BC: Buddha’s meditations on human suffering resulted in the Four Noble Truths which teach the way of liberation through ethics and discipline. 
The picture below shows a Buddhist stupa and the column on which the Emperor Asoka's laws of non-violence were enscribed. He had become a Buddhist in the 3rdc BC and, in spite of the spread of this religion through large parts of Asia, Buddhism had largely lost influence in India by 500AD. The Jains are the only one of the sects to survive today dating back to the time of Buddha. Its founder was a contemporary of Buddha and his message is the most sacred of all life, refusing to kill even the smallest insect – (a difficult religion for those of us who hate mosquitoes!). See picture above of an 18 mtr high monolithic sculpture carved about 1020 AD. Hinduism in its present form emerged about 1500 years ago. It is a religion which was first based on texts but changed to images. The three main gods were Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva representing creation, life, and death. 
Some theologians say they are all aspects of one god. The main emphasis is now on Vishnu and Shiva. The picture on the left shows Vishnu sleeping while dreaming up the universe. Vishnu has been born 9 times in various human and non-human incarnations – Krishna and Rama are his 2 great human incarnations while one of h
is non-human incarnations (as a pig) is shown in the other picture. Shiva is a
composite god, half man/half woman and is both creator and destroyer. The three headed stone carving of Shiva portrays the 3 aspects of creation, destruction, and contemplation. It is carved in the 6th century AD and the faces are 3 metres tall.
The bronze casting from the 12th century shows Shiva dancing the tandava, the dance of destruction and recreation.
Each god has many manifestations with both benign and ferocious aspects as shown on the left in the female godess Kali with the fierceful as well as the graceful aspect (Parvati). Hinduism assimilated local religions and developed many sub-cults – Michael Harris said that it could be described as a very broad church. This was a specialised and unusual lecture giving an intriguing insight into India and perhaps the next step should be a visit!
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5 Jan 2010 – Elisabeth Szlezak-Wittmann: The Romans in Vienna.
In pre-Roman times, the area between the river Danube and the Alps was inhabited by Celtic tribes. On the south bank of the Danube at the location of today’s Vienna there was already a Celtic settlement with the name of Vindobona. The Roman presence in Austria began in 15 BC, when Emperor Augustus decided to enlarge the Roman Empire to the north beyond the Alps. But north of the Danube and east of the Rhine the Germanic tribe of the Marcomanni under their King Marbot withstood the Roman pressure further north, until eventually, after the disastrous defeat of the Romans in the Battle of Teuteburg Forrest (east of the lower Rhine) the Romans drew back their legions to build a frontier 
(Limes) along the rivers Rhine and Danube. The Danube Limes was to last for the next 400 years. For stationing defence troops along this limes, a chain of reinforced camps was built. One of them was at the Celtic settlement of Vindobona. Another one close by was Carnuntum, which at the end of the 2nd century AD became the capital of the Roman province of Upper Pannonia and, with about 50.000 inhabitants, was one of the most important metropolises of the empire. Vindobona in contrast stayed a small town with a civilian settlement and a port next to the legion's camp. The outlines of the rectangular camp are still to be seen in the street grid of today's Vienna, as the camp walls became town walls during Medieval times. Only a small amount of scattered archaeological excavations can be conducted in a densely inhabited
modern city like Vien
na. 
Excavations performed since the 19th century led to a full, virtual reconstruction of the camp, as all Roman camps were built in accordance to the same master plan. A very interesting video depicting a 3D virtual reconstruction of the Vindobona camp was shown by Elisabeth. The camp has been built on a plateau next to the Danube, protected by a steep slope to the river at the north, a natural canyon to the west and three parallel ditches plus wooden palisades to the south and east. The camp itself was 400x500m in size and was surrounded by a 10m high massive wall and defence towers. There were four big gates, one to each side, connected by the main streets, t
he Via Principalis (also called Via Cardialis) and the Via Decumana. These streets, 9m wide, were paved with big stone slabs, had a drainage 
system and roof-covered footpaths at both sides. At their crossing the headquarters of the legion was located. The minor streets provided a regular grid for all other buildings necessary to give accommodation for about 6000 soldiers and 4000 civilians. There were barracks for the lower graded soldiers, baths, workshops, storehouses, stables etc. The commander, belonging to the senatorial class, had a palace for him and his family, equipped with a hypocaust (under floor) heating system. Around the fortress a prospering urban settlement developed, one 
part of which was in close connection to the military administration and had shops, workshops, taverns, leisure facilities as well as places for worship. Further out there was an independent civilian quarter with inhabitants consisting for a large part of the native Celtic people. In the outskirts of Vindobona and beyond estates and farmhouses were established. In the course of the development it was destroyed in169 AD as a result of a Germanic raid. It was reconstructed soon after and there was another period of prosperity until the end of the 3rd century AD, when border conflicts led to a crisis. There was a gradual decline of the urban settlement outside the fortress and the civilian town of Vindobona. In addition, a landslide destroyed large parts of the legionary fortress. After the Roman defeat at the battle of Adrianople (380 AD) by the Goths, the invasion and settlement by Huns and East Germanic tribes continued. At about 400 AD the camp and town were finally destroyed.
09 Dec 2009 - Richard Harrison: Lost Worlds from the Spanish Bronze Age. For many years Dr. Harrison’s research centred on field projects and excavations designed to obtain first class data to model palaeo-economic changes and patterns of intensification in the Copper and Bronze Ages of Spain and Portugal. This work established the dynamism and local autonomy of societies with a low population density and showed unexpected routes to stability, through specialised horse breeding, for hunting, and secondary products exploitation.
The talk focussed on his field work in the Zaragoza region of Spain in particular the remote villages of Moncín a
nd Majaladares. It appears that the societies in this region (2 – 1000 BCE) relied on a cork/pork economy and the landscape was exploited to this end – eg 70-120kg of acorns could produce 40kg of fat pork. In the summer when it was very dry hunting would take place. At Moncín there was very deep stratigraphy which revealed the remains of timber buildings, storage pits, and 40 silos estimated to have each contained around 1.200kg of grain. Professor Harrison explained that the soils removed from the site were all sieved through 5mm screens to establish the amount of animal bone present within the settlement. Sheep and goats made up around half whereas horses were only 8.9% and 20.5% red deer. This contrasted enormously with the study at Majaladares where there were huge numbers of horses and deer. He believes that there may well have been a breeding programme for horses and that there was an ongoing trade between the sites he has studied. It is suggested that the area around Moncín could have produced the arable needs of the region due to the high number of silos (none being found at Majaladares). Another interesting site was Ternel in Aragon. This region is one of the least populated areas of W.Europe. The site is situated at a height of 1.500m on eroded limestone and was undiscovered until a new water system was installed. The land around is good for cereal growing and the archaeologists found 2m of stratified BA deposits. These were discovered beneath 1937 civil war deposits and showed that the BA farmstead, although having been destroyed by fire in antiquity, was relatively undisturbed. A considerable amount of charcoal and seed was recovered by sieving. Pollen cores were taken from the surrounding fields, these included barley, peas, lentils and low yield wheat. There is much more to say about the studies that Richard Harrison has carried out in this remote area of Iberia, but, even so it can be seen how well the people of the Bronze Age exploited their environment to their best advantage in the distant past.
03 Nov 2009 – Jean-Yves Blot : Jean Boudriot and the Great ‘59 Legacy.
The naval Battle of Lagos took place on August 19, 1759 during the Seven Years' War between Britain and France. The scheme of King Louis XV’s ministers was to invade Britain with the combined squadrons of 21 ships lying at Brest and the 12 which were to be brought round from Toulon by de la Clue. Admiral Boscawen with his 14 ships was given the task of blockading de la Clue. De la Clue, however, passed the straits of Gibraltar while Boscawen was at port in Gibraltar f
or provisioning and refitting. The British fleet hurried out to sea and pursued de la Clue’s ships. Five of de la Clue's ships steered for Cadiz. The other 7 were overtaken by Boscawen and attacked. One was captured, while two altered course to the west, and escaped. The remaining 4 fled to the north into Portuguese waters near Lagos, where 2 ships were captured and 2 ships were driven ashore and destroyed. The wreck lying in open water off Salema was identified as being from de la Clue's 74-gun flagship, Océan, by some bronze cannons recovered and by careful exploration comparing the findings to the studies of Jean Boud
riot, an important French architect and major historian, whose drawings in technical detail of the French men-of-war of the period are crucial to the study of any naval event and wreck identification from the second half of the 17th Century. Jean Yves presented his findings at a recent symposium sponsored by the Lagos Câmara to commemorate the 250th ann
iversary of the battle. By way of introduction to his talk Jean Yves-Blot 
had noted that nautical archeology in Portugal was a fledgling science, not much supported by public funding unlike its land-based counterpart. Also the diving expertise required for
Nautical exploration had not existed in Portugal until recently. The site of the Océan still exists today, relatively unharmed although fragile. It is a miracle that there is no visible destruction at a site that is so accessible. But what will happen if diving tourism will bring a kind of diving to the Algarve that did not exist before?
Jean Yves continued his talk with many visuals illustrating the varied and complex nature of nautical archeology and the various fields of expertise used. Especially the use of a magnetometer which has been more useful than sonar in finding scattered remains. The sciences of naval architecture and 
engineering helped to identify wrecks and the manner of the decomposition of their component parts and cargos. Taking a global perspective, necessary because of the vast range of commerce, different countries used different construction methods; the Chinese double scarf joints of their large vessels were totally different to the more flexible, caulked hulls of the European navies. All these things provide clues to the identity of the wrecks. Where wood still exists it can be carbon dated. The land/sea-scape at a site also alters with time. At Carrapeteira, near Lagos but on the west coast of the Algarve, the bay which at one time contained a cove harbour is now a bay of sand dunes – the probable result of the great earthquake of 1755 off the coast. This discovery was a result of magnometer scans of the seabed which showed clear anomalies and trenches just off Carrapateira caused by the collision of tectonic plates which continue to cause tremors in this part of the ocean. The wide ranging talk ended with an enthusiastic plea for nautical archeology, particularly its complexity and the diverse range of sciences required which he had referred to during the talk: Ethnology, Seismology, Jurisprudence, International law, History, Diving, Navigation, Marine engineering, Naval architecture – to name but a few!
06 Oct 2009 – Our autumn lecture programme started with a good turnout at both venues to hear Carolyn Perry, 
Director of the MBI al Jaber Foundation, speak on the broad category of the impact of Islam on all aspects of art. Members and visitors alike were fascinated by the array of 
examples shown, many from the British Museum where Carolyn was previously head of the Arab World Education Programme. Carolyn opened with a photo of a fabulously ornate mosque lamp, a symbolic (and functional item) that demonstrated that God is light, a refuge from darkness. Wealthy families often make gifts of lamps to mosque, both as demonstration of a profound faith but also as a bit of competition with other wealthy families. Following on with a few photos of regional artwork prior to the founding of Islam, we 
marvelled at the work of the Nabateans. At the time that Mohammad proclaimed 
Islam in Mecca, the city was already an important trading and pilgrimage centre, especially as a stop on the frankincense route, and existing religious sites such as the Kaaba and Zam Zam Well were incorporated into the new religion. The five pillars of Islam (faith in one god, daily prayers, charity for the poor, fasting during Ramadan and a once in a life-time pilgrimage to Mecca) with the exception of fasting, offer examples that the faith has influenced all aspects of art . . . from painting, architecture, and metalwork to enamel and lustre ware, glassware, and calligraphy. The examples of architecture were particularly dramatic, showing the basic features of a mosque and how the shape of mi
narets developed from a Roman lighthouse basis to the more common style seen throughout the Middle East today. A special favourite was the minaret 
with a spiral ramp on th
e outside, thus allowing the muezzin to be carried on horseback to the top of the minaret to deliver the call to prayer. The Arabic language script is very important in Islamic arts and led to the development of many different regional styles. Whether written on parchment as part of religious texts or lavished on walls or decorative objects, the language itself is a thing of beauty, with the scripts from Iraq and Afghanistan shown as particularly ornate.
The lecture concluded with an answer to the question – What is Islamic Art? In major museum collections, a visitor will find examples of a wide array of items . . . do not be surprised to also find Christian and Jewish artefacts. Why? Because the term Islamic Art refers to items made during the period when Islam was at the height of its influence; many of the artisans were not Muslim and the influence of the religion was such that non-Muslims adopted techniques and materials from the era.
02 June 2009 - John Bennet shone his light on several other late
Mycenaen Bronze Age site in 
Messenia (the south western
Peloponnese), with Pylos being the most important one, but about
which less is heard compared to the more famous one of Minoan Knossos
or Mycenae itself. However, references to all three sites were made
in the hieroglyphics of Amenhotep III in Egypt. 
Trade across the
Mediterranean was evidently well established and the appearance of
characteristic pottery in places far from its origin confirms this.
The discovery of a beautiful amber necklace at Pylos (amber 
originating from the Baltic sea) throws light on just how extensive
were the ancient trade routes. Illustrations
of shaft graves at Mycenae and the more sophisticated tholos tombs at
Pylos pointed out the different characteristics of the two sites. We
were given a conducted tour of the Pylos site, known popularly as the
Palace of Nestor, which was excavated by Carl Blegen from 1939 to
1952. It is in a superb position overlooking Navarino Bay in the
Western Peloponnese.
The evolution of the palace complex was
explained. The central megaron, which was virtually the throne room,
has some remains of what must have been very beautiful wall paintings
but the palace was burned to the ground at some point. It was because
of this that so many of the tablets inscribed with Linear B script
were preserved. The complex writing system, which had baffled the
archaeologists since it was first discovered at Knossos, was
fortunately deciphered at about the same time as the site was opened
up. As a result much is known about the kingdom of Pylos which was
administered from the palace. The area consisted of 2 main provinces
divided by the Aigaleon range of mountains in the western Peloponnese
and was subdivided into other districts. Decipering the tablets was
an enormous achievement byh Ventris. His discovery that the script
was in fact a representation of Greek was hugely important in the
understanding of the society that gave rise to the Palace. It was
interesting to learn that it was principally used as a short term method of keeping records. It was apparently not used for literary
purposes as there was a strong tradition of story telling as part of
the celebrations and 
ceremony at the Palace. 
In this way a rich
mixture of historical fact and legend embellished by the narrators
was passed down. These narrators may well have also used the palace
paintings as visual prompts. This amalgam of fact and fiction was
beautifully described as a ‘river of song’. This picture, Prof.
Bennett argued, is consistent with the complete disappearance of
wring at the end of the Aegean Late Bronze Age and with the
continuity or oral performance into the so-called Greek Dark Age.
This 'river' of Homeric-like poems eventually led to a tranquil lake
of written stories from Homer onwards into which we can dip at will.
From the scant evidence on site a number of highly conjectural images
have been conjured up by artists to do essentially what Arthur Evans
did for us at Knossos.
05 May 2009 - One
of our longstanding members Michael (Mike) Pease gave us an
enthusiastic, knowledgeable and entertaining lecture on the topic of
The Roman Legions – A British Soldier’s Perspective. In
the early 1950’s Michael was a young officer serving in an Armoured
Division. He was stationed at Minden, North Western Germany, not far
from the Teutoburg Forest where, in AD9 the 17th, 18th, and 19th
Roman legions together with 6 cohorts of auxiliaries, drawn from
conquered tribes, 3 squadrons of cavalry and camp followers were
slaughtered by Germanic tribesmen led by Hermanus. In recent times,
archaeological discoveries, centred on Osnabruck University, have
defined more precisely the course of the 3-day battle of
Teutoburgwald and its final catastrophic conclusion near Kalkriese
Hill. 
The number of those killed, approximately 20,000, equated to
the number of men in the armoured division in which Mike served. This
historical event inspired Michael’s interest in the Roman legions
and the similarities between their structure and 
organisation and
those of the British army he knew. Michael’s review of the
structure and organisation of the Roman Legions focussed on the
reforms (called thew Marian reforms) that Gaius Marius (157-86 BC)
introduced during the period of his 7-times elected Consulship.
Until that time soldiers serving the Republic had to belong to the
fifth cencus class or higher and own property over a certain value.
In addition they were to provide their own arms and uniforms. Faced
with a militatary crisis with regards to troop numbers as a result of
these minimum requirements and the fear of invasion by the Barbarian
hordes, Marius decided to ignore these requirements altogether and
allow all Roman citizens entry into the army, regardless of social
class and property of the potential soldier. Standard equipment
and uniforms were provided and for greater mobility of the troops as
well as to deminish the enormous mule bagage trains, soldiers had to
carry all their equipment, clothes, food, as well as parts for camp
making, which resulted into a weight of 27 kg to be carried on a
frame on their back (Marian's Mules). The restructuring also included
a change in tactics from the Greek/Etruscan massive but unwieldy
Phalanx, used by the Hoplites, to more widely spaced and flexible
cohorts that permitted greater room for individual fighting and for
variations in troop disposition with differing military experience. 
However, this greater flexibility called for much greater initiative
and leadership at junior officer and non-commissioned officer levels.
This was a theme to which Michael harked throughout his talk and he
drew parallels with the flexibility of western armies facing
centrally controlled Communist forces during the Cold War of the
1950’s.Under Gaius Marius reforms were extensive, resulting in the
loyalty of legionnaires being transferred much more towards their
direct field commanders (who could at the end of their service bring
about a land distribution on their behalf) and away from Rome.
Michael dwelt in some detail on such aspects as: recruitment,
discipline, morale, pay, retirement, clothing, food, intelligence
services, health, hygiene and battlefield medicine. He also described
logistics, weapons, equipment and armour, artillery, engineering and
camp layout, tactical formations and specialised units. In all these
aspects he drew parallels to modern day military practices.
07 Apr 2009 - Derek Roe and
Sarah Milliken returned to speak about Two and a half
million years of stone tools. 
This lecture was given as a
powerpoint presentation, with many outstanding illustrations of stone
artefacts from all periods, starting with the beginning of the
Palaeolithic period and ending with modern times. Derek Roe covered
the Palaeolithic period and Sarah Milliken later Prehistory and more
recent times. The ability to make stone tools was one of the
characteristics that distinguished the emerging first humans from
other members of the Primates. When looking at stone tools from the
maker’s and user’s point of view one should realize that workable
stone was abundant and easy to find, that basic knapping, the
striking of a flake, is extremely easy, while stone cutting edges are
amongst the sharpest in the world. While the earliest stone tools,
dating back 2.5-2.8 million years ago and found in the Sub-Saharan
region at Oldowai, were extremely simple chopper-like pieces, they
were still highly effective. During the long 
Palaeolithic period, as
humans evolved physically and mentally, several important
manufacturing techniques were developed and the repertoire
of manufactured tools became quite sophisticated. Large handaxes
(pointed or almond-shaped) and cleavers (with 
axe-like ends), made
bifacially from large flake blanks or suitable flat nodules, typical
for the Aecheulian lasted for a million years during the Lower
Paleolithic, spreading widely within the Old World, and remaining
remarkably consistent, whatever the rock types. The Middle
Palaeolithic saw emphasis on fine flake tools, made on blanks of
predetermined size and shape, struck from prepared cores. Various
specialised tool types appear, including some blades and the first
obvious projectile points. In the Upper Palaeolithic, from c.45,000
b.p. (in Europe), technology included regular use of blades, making
possible many new tool types. Among many new techniques introduced in
this period was pressure flaking: regular flat removals of retouch
flakes by pressure, not percussion. Because stone artefacts have a
high capacity for survival (unlike huminid fossils and most organic
remains), they are a vital element in the archaeological evidence
documenting the gradual spread of humans over the Old World and into
the New World during the Pleistocene period. The Neolithic period
brought further innovations, which can be linked to the change from
nomadic hunter-gatherer economies to sedentary food-producing ones.
After metal-working was introduced, stone tools and weapons continued
to be made, and various distinctive types exist in the Bronze and
Iron ages of Europe, and in chronologically equivalent stages of
Prehistory in other parts of the world. Indeed, stone tool
manufacture has continued into the historic period in 
various
ethnographic contexts. Some stone artifacts that were obviously too
big and heavy to be used as tools or showed only intricate decorative
designs (the Mayan eccentrics) may also have played an import part in
religious practices. In our own times some of the same knapping
techniques that were known to early humans have even become the basis
of an art-form, particularly in America. Stone tools can yield vital
information about many aspects of human life in the Prehistoric
period: the study of them is as important to present-day
archaeologists as the use of them was to their original makers. While
some of the traditional approaches based on typological
classification are still useful, archaeological science had added
many new methods of extracting information from stone artefacts - for
example, microscopic study of use-wear traces, which may tell us
exactly how an individual stone tool was used, and what material it
was used to work. At well-preserved archaeological sites, it may be
possible to reconstruct the entire life cycle of stone artefacts,
from the obtaining of the rock, through manufacture, use, including
various stages of reshapening, to eventual discard.
03 Mar 2009 - Professor
John Burland made a welcome return to speak to the AAA with a
lecture titled ‘A Tale of Two Towers – Rescuing Pisa and
Big Ben’. …Construction of the Pisa tower began in 1173
and was 
completed in 1370. Construction occurred in 3 phases and
calculations showed that if the long pauses between the three phases
of construction had not taken place the tower would have fallen over.
The pauses allowed consolidation of the soft sediments to take place
thereby increasing the strength of the ground. In 1838 the architect
Alessandro della Gherardesca excavated a walk-way (catino) around the
base of the tower. It is known that the tower lurched to the south by
nearly half a metre which brought it very close to collapse. Because
of fears for its stability the Pisa Tower was closed to the public in
January 1990 and the Italian Prime Minister set up a Commission to
stabalize the tower in March 1990. 
Measurements that had already
begun in 1911 showed that during the twentieth century the
inclination of the tower had been increasing inexorably each year and
the rate of tilt had doubled since the 1930’s. Years of study and
trials showed that tilt was not caused by an uneven settling of the
foundatioins in the soft underlying marine clay but by a rotation of
the foundation. Commencement of rotation each year coincided
with very sharp rises in the ground water level predominantly under
the foundation of the north side following the heavy rainstorms that
always occur in the period September to December. Temporary
stabilisation of the foundations was achieved by the application of
900 ton of lead weights to the north side of the foundations.
Stabilization work began in 1999, using a controversial method of
silt extraction from under the north side of the foundation which
brought the top of the tower back 44 cm in the horizontal plane, back
to the position it held in 1838. The lean of Big Ben’s tower
was not as serious as that of Pisa but there was still a need
for correction as the inclination of this tower had been
influenced by a number of construction activities: the construction
of the underground car park beneath New Palace Yard in the 1970’s
and in the 1990’s, the construction of the Jubilee Line extension
tunnels. The stability of the clock tower has been controlled by a
different but equally novel method of injecting grout beneath the
foundations. The two stories of stabilizing these two famous towers
intertwined in a fascinating way demonstrating the marrying up of
scientific and engineering skills in order to save these towers for
posterity. One was left with the feeling: What if these two
monumentous treatments had gone wrong? Prof. Burland and his team are
to be congratulated for the work and the confidence with which they
tackled the unique projects. The entire lecture can be found at : http://www.royalsoced.org.uk/events/reports/2001-2002/rae_02.pdf
the way the medieval builders constructed their foundations on different terrains, and the problems that ensued when those foundations went wrong. Construction of the Chichester cathedral was started in 1080 after the Norman Conquest and was constructed on earlier Roman remains. It's spire collapsed in 1861. It was found that the interior 15th century screen had been removed at some point and this led to the collapse of the tower into the cathedral itself. With extensive repairs to the supporting walls the tower was rebuilt and opened again on 28th June 1866. 
Winchester Cathedral problems began at the beginning of the 20th century. Being also built on Roman remains, this cathedral was first commenced in 1079 and was finally completed in 1525. Even so during the construction the original tower had collapsed in 1107. In 1905, when there was a request for a memorial window to be inserted in an outside wall, a huge crack was found. A survey showed that the eastern extension of the original romanesque cathedral was built on top of a peat layer which had started to indent over time, causing the tilt of the extension. Trenches dug for the restoration of the foundation, however, filled up with water as soon as the peat layer was perforated, causing a 13 feet layer of water. With the help of a deep-sea diver the peat was first sealed off with bags of cement before the water could be pumped out and reconstruction work continue. In May 1912, King George V and Queen Mary were at the celebrations to mark the end of the restoration. The tower of Salisbury’s cathedral is miraculously still standing. Construction of the Cathedral had been started in 1220 on a virgin site with 2 adjacent rivers and in 1330 a spire was added. The foundations are on 5ft of flint gravel and there was also a similar problem of water beneath the foundations. In the 17th century Christopher Wren was employed to examine the tower. He recommended that due to the threat of collapse iron bands should be added to the spire. A plumb line was attached and since then the movement of the spire and the walls have been constantly monitored. To date it has been decided to leave the spire as it is. 06 Jan 2009 - Professor Trevor Haywood presented The Romans in Iberia.
Why did the Romans come to Iberia? It was principally due to the two heads of the emerging empire in its early days, Rome and Carthage watching each other expand. We were deftly led through the characters of the Punic Wars, which eventually came to a head in Eastern Spain. Hasdrubal of Carthage finally agreed to a dividing line along the River Ebro, but with the town of Satguim retained by Rome, south of the river. Later, Hasdrubal, in order to even the boundaries seized the town and outright war was declared. As a result Hasdrubal decided to march on Rome. However, it was his son, Hannibal, who eventually took the lead, and after crossing the Alps, he defeated the Roman army in three pitched battles. Successive members of the Scipio family, supported by Roman legions, eventually seized back various parts of the Iberian peninsular. The following 200 years saw the rising of strong local defence against this Roman colonisation by the native tribes including the fierce Lusitanians. This led to the rise of the Lusitanian hero, Viriatus, a strong and capable military leader. Viriatus was eventually murdered by his own men at the behest of Rome. A period of relative peace followed, permitting Rome to consolidate its new colony. They withdrew their forces at the beginning of the 5th century. Lusitania became a great asset to the Roman Empire. The Alentejo area was the bread basket of Rome, some 85% of its olive oil came from there. Gold and silver were mined to great effect, benefitting the tax collectors, consuls and governors. Rome brought town planning with roads, aqueducts, markets, temples and the veneer of civilisation which lasted well into the time of the Moorish invasions.’ The Roman legacy is represented by remains found at such locations as Merida, Itálica and Milreu.